The Matter of Britain

This page contains both a mythic history and a profane history of Britain from 10,000 B.C. to 1220 AD (the reign of King Henry Plantagenet the Third). Important milestones are the stone age colonization of Britain, to the Beaker Folk colonization, to the Celts, to Julius Caesar, to Jesus Christ, to King Arthur of the Britons, to the establishment of the Saxon Kingdom in 550 A.D.; to the invasion of the Danes, to William the Conquer (my Grandpa), to Richard I of England, to King John, to King Philip of France and England, to King Henry III of England.

The Mythic History begins with Brutus of Troy, follows through to the Visit of Jesus Christ in Glastonbury/Avalon, to Arthur, King of the Britains. The Profane History includes all of these including the points above.

Before Brutus of Troy
In the days after the Younger Dryas, during the Age of Cancer, Britain was cut off from the Continent and the Britons back then were stone age hunters and gatherers. There is no example of any high civilization and urban planning except for the settlement of Skara Brae in the Orkneys.

The best weapons technology was the flint knife, the fint axe, and other stone age implements. The best known religious sites are the two calendars in Stonehenge and Wood Henge, and also the circle of stones at Avebury.

About the time of Abraham and Narmer of Egypt, the migrations and emmigrations of the Beaker Folk began. The Beaker Folk came out of Southern Europe bringing with them their new technologies for casting bronze, copper, and their distinctive clay pottery used for drinking mead and other concoctions. The Bronze Age beaker folk becomes part of the core for the Sidhe (the Elves and Fairies of English lore); but these new Britons are actually descended from Shem and Japheth; or better yet, they are Shemites and Indo-Europeans.

Brutus of Troy and the Kings of Britain
About the time of David and Solomon in the Middle Bronze Age (according to Immanuel Velikosky's reconstruction), Brutus of Troy founds Britain. Third generation from the destruction of Troy VI. Aeneas of Troy fled the fall of Troy VI and arrived in Italy where he became king, and married Lavinia, the daughter of King Latinus. Aeneas had a son named Ascanius, who had a son named Silvius. Silvius dallied in secret with one of Lavinia's nieces, marrying her and making her great with child. When Ascanius discovered the affair, he consulted soothsayers about the child. The soothsayers (who, in game terms, are masters of Divination) said that the boy -- Brutus -- will be a man who will cause the death of his father and mother, and after wandering in Exile, rise to the highest honor.

Brutus' mother died in childbirth, and at the age of fifteen killed his father in a hunting accident. Exiled from Italy for this crime, Brutus finds a number of trojans enslaved by King Pandrasus. Being of impressive character, he frees the Trojans and becomes their king. He leads the Trojans from the lands of Pandrasus and traveled to a deserted island. There, they consulted a statue of Diana. Brutus asked the statue where they should settle. The statue directed them to the Isles of the Sea -- the Blessed Isles according to the Greek -- where Brutus lands his people and start on a colony in the Environs of London called Caer Traer, or Troynovant (new Troy). The colony becomes the seed of the City of London. Brutus then sired Locrinus, Albanactus, and Kamber. All of this happened while Eli was judge in Israel, and the Ark of the Covenant was taken by the Philistines.

Corineus
Corineus led other descendants of Troy  who fled with  Antenor after the  Trojan War and settled on the coasts of the  Tyrrhenian Sea. After  Brutus, a descendant of the Trojan prince  Aeneas, had been exiled from Italy and liberated the enslaved Trojans in Greece, he encountered Corineus and his people, who joined him in his travels. In  Gaul, Corineus provoked a war with Goffarius Pictus, king of  Aquitania, by hunting in his forests without permission, and killed thousands single-handedly with his battle-axe. After defeating Goffarius, the Trojans crossed to the island of  Albion, which Brutus renamed Britain after himself. Corineus settled in Cornwall, which was then inhabited by giants. Brutus and his army killed most of them, but their leader,  Gogmagog, was kept alive for a wrestling match with Corineus. The fight took place near  Plymouth, and Corineus killed him by throwing him over a cliff.

Corineus was the first of the  legendary rulers of Cornwall.

Locrinus, Albanactus, and Kamber
After Brutus died the rest of Britain was divided between his three sons,  Locrinus (England),  Kamber (Wales) and  Albanactus (Scotland) <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">. While they reigned, King Humber of the Huns invaded Britian and slew Albanactus. Both Kamber and Locrinus and did battle with the Huns and drowned King Humber in the river of the Humber. The huns then were integrated into Briton society.

<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Locrinus agreed to marry Corineus's daughter  Gwendolen<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">, but fell in love instead with  Estrildis<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">, a captured German princess. Corineus threatened war in response to this affront, and to pacify him Locrinus married Gwendolen, but kept Estrildis as his secret mistress. After Corineus died Locrinus divorced Gwendolen and married Estrildis, and Gwendolen responded by raising an army in Cornwall and making war against her ex-husband. Locrinus was killed in battle, and Gwendolen threw Estrildis and her daughter, Habren, into the  River Severn<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">. Gwendolyn then ruled England until she passed the scepter to Maddan.

King Bladdud and Magic
<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Bladud soon founded the city of Bath, and encouraged magic through out the realm. Wizards, sorcerers, and warlocks flourished under his protection. However, King Bladdud was killed by falling out of the sky while flying over the temple of Apollo in Troynovant.

King Leir
<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Also called King Lear,  <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Leir followed his father, King  Bladud<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> who had died while trying to fly with artificial wings. He became king of  Britain<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> and had the longest reign of all the kings at sixty years. <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> The date of his reign is not clear, but Geoffrey says that Leir's father lived at the same time as the Biblical prophet  Elijah<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">. (Late Bronze Age, at the time of Pelops or King Ahab of Israel). King Leir is responsible for the founding of the county of Leicester.

Summary of William Shakespeare's King Lear
<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">At the Winter of his Reign, King Lear askes his three daughters: Goneril, Regan, and Cordelia what they desire of him. <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">As he neared his death, he planned to divide the kingdom among his three daughters and their husbands. <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> Goneril and Regan flattered their father and were married off to the Duke of  Albany<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> and Duke of  Cornwall<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> respectively at the advice of the nobles, each being promised a third of the kingdom to inherit. <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Cordelia, however, refused to flatter her father, feeling that he should not need special assurances of her love, and was given no land to rule. Aganippus<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">, the king of the  Franks<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">, courted Cordelia and married her, although Lear refused her a  dowry<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">. <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> Lear gave half his Kingdom to Goneril and Regan, and they would be given the whole after his death. Some time later, Leir became old, and the two dukes who had married his older daughters rebelled and seized the whole of the kingdom. <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> Maglaurus, the Duke of Albany, maintained Lear in his old age, protecting him with 60  knights<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">. <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> However, Goneril disapproved of such extravagance and after two years decreased Lear's bodyguard to only thirty. <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> He fled to Cornwall, where Regan decreased his guard to only five knights. <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> He fled back to Albany and pleaded with Goneril, but he was given only one knight for protection.

<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Fearing his two older daughters, he fled to  Gaul<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> and his youngest child. <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> Almost destitute, he was supported in secret by Cordelia after he sent a messenger to tell her he was outside Karitia, where his daughter lived. She had him bathed, royally clothed and assigned an entourage of knights befitting his station. He was then received officially by her husband and was held in high honour in Gaul, whose leaders vowed to restore him to his former glory and made him regent of Gaul until he was restored. <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Lear, Cordelia, and Aganippus invaded Britain at the head of a large army and overthrew the dukes and their wives. <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> Lear reclaimed the throne of Britain and reigned for three more years until his death. <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> He was succeeded by Cordelia, who buried him in an underground chamber beneath the  River Soar<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> near Leicester. <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> It was dedicated to the  Roman<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> god  Janus<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> and every year people celebrated his feast-day near Leir's tomb.

Cunedagius
<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Cunedagius, grandson of Leir, despised the rule of his aunt <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">  Cordelia<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">. With the help of his cousin  Marganus<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">, Cunedagius took over the kingdom from Cordelia and ruled half of it. Following Cordelia's suicide, Cunedagius came to rule the region of Britain southwest of the <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">  Humber<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Two years after they split the island, Marganus invaded Cornwall and destroyed much of the land. Cunedagius met him in battle and defeated him. Marganus fled throughout Britain until he was cornered in Wales. Cunedagius killed him and became king of all of Britain. He ruled all of Britain for 33 years and was succeeded by his son, Rivallo.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Geoffrey synchronizes Cunedagius' reign with the ministry of the Jewish prophet Isaiah and the founding of Rome by Romulus and Remus. Both events are dated to the 8th century BC.

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<p style="margin-top:0.5em;">Rivallo (Welsh: Rhiwallon) was a legendary king of the Britons as accounted by Geoffrey of Monmouth. He was the son of King Cunedagius and was noted as a young king who reigned with moderation. Geoffrey describes him as a "peaceful and fortunate youth, who ruled the kingdom well".

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;">His reign was troubled by natural disasters: a rain of blood that lasted three days, a devastating plague, and a great swarm of flies. He was succeeded by his son, Gurgustius.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;">Gurgustius (Welsh: Gorust) was a legendary king of the Britons as accounted by Geoffrey of Monmouth. He was the son of King Rivallo and was succeeded by Sisillius I, and then Jago, who was Gurgustius' nephew.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;">Sisillius I (Welsh: Seisyll) was a legendary king of the Britons as accounted by Geoffrey of Monmouth. He was preceded by Gurgustius and succeeded by Jago. He was the father of Kimarcus, king of the Britons.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;">Jago (Welsh: Iago; sometimes Jaygo; James in English) was a legendary king of the Britons according toGeoffrey of Monmouth. He was the nephew of Gurgustius, succeeded his cousin Sisillius I to the throne and was succeeded by Sissillius' son Kimarcus.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;">Kimarcus (Welsh: Cynfarch) was a legendary king of the Britons according to Geoffrey of Monmouth. He was the son of Sisillius I and was succeeded by Gorboduc.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;">Gorboduc (Welsh: Gorwy or Goronwy) was a legendary king of the Britons as accounted by Geoffrey of Monmouth. He was married to Judon. When he became old, his sons, Ferrex and Porrex, feuded over who would take over the kingdom. Porrex tried to kill his brother in an ambush, but Ferrex escaped to France. With the French king Suhardus, he invaded Britain, but was defeated and killed by Porrex. Ferrex himself was then killed in revenge by his own mother Judon, leading to a long period of anarchy.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;">Porrex I was a legendary king of the Britons as accounted by Geoffrey of Monmouth. He was the son ofGorboduc and his death began a dynastic civil war.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;">In the final years of Gorboduc's life, Porrex waged war with his brother, Ferrex. He planned to ambush his brother but his brother fled to Gaul to enlist the aide of Suhard, the king of the Franks. When Ferrex returned with a large Gaulish army, Porrex attacked and Ferrex and the army were defeated. Some time after, his mother, Judon, avenged Porrex's murder of Ferrex and hacked him to pieces in his sleep. His death sparked a civil war which would not be resolved until the reign of Dunvallo Molmutius.

Dunvallo Molmutius
<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">He was the son of  Cloten<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">, the King of  Cornwall<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">, and he restored order after the  "Civil War of the Five Kings"<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">. <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">He and his descendants were of a sub-branch of the  genealogical<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> line of  Brutus<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">, the dominant line having ended with  Porrex<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> before the civil war.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Dunvallo was the King of Cornwall during the war created in the power vacuum left by Porrex. He was braver and more courageous than all the other kings in the war. He defeated Pinner, the king of Loegria. In response, Rudaucus, king of Cambria, and Staterius, king of Albany, allied together and destroyed much of Dunvallo's land. The two sides met in battle and were stalemated. Dunvallo then took 600 of his men and himself and dressed themselves in the armour of the dead enemies. They led a charge deep into enemy lines where they killed the two kings. After this battle, Dunvallo destroyed the remaining defenses of the kings and pillaged their lands.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Following the defeat of the rival kings, Dunvallo created a crown like that of his predecessors and claimed the throne of Britain. He created a set of rules for the kingdom called the Molmutine Laws which lasted for many centuries. Also, robbery throughout the kingdom nearly ended for fear of Dunvallo and his laws. He reigned in peace and prosperity for forty years then died and was buried in the Temple of Concord, a tribute to his laws, which resided in Trinovantum. His death sparked another civil war between his two sons, Belinus and Brennius.

Belinus
<p style="margin-top:0.5em;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">In an effort to win the crown of Britain, Brennius and Belinus waged war between each other to determine who should succeed their father. Many battles were fought between the two brothers until a time came when their friends intervened and a compromise was decided upon. Belinus became the King of the Britons with Brennius as king of the north.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Five years later, Brennius wed the daughter of the King of Norway without consulting Belinus. Belinus invaded Northumberland and seized Brennius's land. The King ofDenmark with Brennius's new wife landed in Britain by accident. Belinus imprisoned them and awaited the return of his brother. Brennius landed in Albany and demanded the return of all his lands and his wife. If not, he swore he would kill Belinus if they ever met in battle.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Belinus called to arms all of Britain against Brennius and the two armies met in the forests of Calaterium. The battle was fought ruthlessly and Belinus defeated the army of Brennius. Brennius fled to Gaul and Belinus became king over all the Britons. He emphasized the Molmutine Laws of his father and ruled justly.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Eventually, Brennius invaded Britain behind a massive Gallic army and met Belinus on the battlefield once again. Their mother, however, convinced Brennius to make peace, and the two brothers ruled their two realms in harmony with each other.

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<p style="margin-top:0.5em;">Following their unification, Belinus and Brennius merged their armies into one great one and invaded Gaul. After a year of warfare, the joint army managed to submit all the Frankish kingdoms in Gaul to their authority. Now with an even greater army, Belinus led his great army to the Italian peninsula and threatened to invade Rome. Outside Rome the two consuls, Gabias and Porsenna, sued for peace and offered wealth, tribute, and hostages as a sign of their submission. Belinus and Brennius accepted and took their great army to Germany. Soon after this movement north, Rome broke the treaty and marched north and Brennius went to fight the Romans while Belinus remained at war with the Germans (who were being helped by various other Italian troops).

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;">After Brennius had left, the Italian troops who were reinforcing the Germans abandoned the Germans in a vain attempt to unite with the Roman soldiers on the other side of Belinus's army. Belinus learned of this and moved his army to a valley through which the Italians had to pass. In the morning, Belinus attacked the Italians, who were not in armour and were unprepared for battle at that point in time. All day the Britons pursued the Italians until it was night.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;">Belinus decided to join forces with his brother, who was besieging Rome. The Romans defended the city for many days and were successful in repelling the invaders. At last, Belinus decided to hang the hostages they were given in the treaty, but it only enraged the Romans more. Finally, the two consuls put on armour and joined the men defending the city. They pushed the invaders back but Belinus was able to reform the lines and stop the attacks. Belinus continued forward until the walls were breached and the Britons invaded the city. Belinus left Brennius in Rome and returned to Britain.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;">

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;">He ruled in peace, building many new cities and restoring many decaying ones. Most important of the cities he founded was Kaerusc, which would be renamed Caerleon or the City of Legions when the Romans occupied Britain. This was the first reference to Caerleon-upon-Usk in Geoffrey's history. He continued using many of his father's laws and enacted a number of his own. Britain became more wealthy than ever before in this time.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;">When Belinus finally died, he was cremated and placed on top of a great tower he had created. He was succeeded by his son Gurguit Barbtruc.

The Founding of Ireland
Gurguit Barbtruc (Welsh: Gwrgant Farfdrwch) was a legendary king of the Britons as accounted by Geoffrey of Monmouth. He was the son of Belinus and was said to have found a home for the Irish people.

Gurguit was a peaceful king who followed in the manner of his father and grandfather. Yet, when the king of the Danes refused to pay tribute to Belinus's son, Gurguit took a fleet and invaded Denmark, killing the king and reducing the country to subservience.

On the return voyage, Gurguit came across a fleet of thirty ships of men and women, called Basclenses (Irish), under the leadership of Partholoim. They had been exiled from Spain and sought a new land to live in. Gurguit did not allow them to settle in Britain but he gave them the isle of Ireland to settle, which was uninhabited until then.

Gurguit died peacefully and was buried in the Caerleon, a city he built up from the time his father founded it. Guithelin succeeded him to the kingship.

The Romans
The Romans had little effect upon the land of Britain until Julius Caesar. In the Classical World, Britain was the source of tin for much of the Ancient World (the legendary tin mines of Cornwall). Under the Iron Age Celts, which has been in the land since the 8th Century B.C.; Britain flourished but have mostly broken up into many tribes of Britons. Troubles between the tribes had led to the invasion of Julius Caesar.

Julius Caesar
About 55 years before Christ, Julius Caesar invaded Britain to give aid to certain British Kings. Julius Caesar needed intelligence. So, he sent a Tribune, <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">  Gaius Volusenus, that scouted the land from his single ship. <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">He probably examined the  Kent<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> coast between  Hythe<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> and  Sandwich<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">, but was unable to land, since he "did not dare leave his ship and entrust himself to the barbarians", <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> and after five days returned to give Caesar what intelligence he had managed to gather.

Further, according to Julius Caesar, ambassadors from the Britons came and offered Alleigance to Caesar. Caesar sent them back to try and bring as many of the British tribes under submission as possible. What happened after is that Caesar invaded into Britain and landed on the coast of Dover. He fought a battle on the coast and was forced to retreat.<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">   <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The second time, he managed to invade sixty miles inland and left back for Gaul (France).

Jesus Christ
Although not a Roman, but a Galilean Jew; Jesus Christ came to Britain with his uncle Joseph of Arimathea circa 23 A.D. (he was born in 3 B.C.). This was after his visit to India and Persepolis. Jesus Christ made landfall, and was greeted with Open Arms by the druids. He became entirely popular in the land. He went to Glastonbury Tor and built a humble church of wattle and daub, which he dedicated to himself and the Christianity he taught to the Britons. This was the beginning of the first Christianization of England. After this, he left, but not before promising to send a messenger.

Paul of Tarsus
A Roman Citizen, Paul of Tarsus goes to Britain, the promised messenger of Jesus Christ. Paul teaches in the collection of villages that would soon become London.

Claudius Caesar's Invasion of Britain
In 46 AD Claudius begins the greater invasion of Britain forthwith. Claudius sends his general Aulus Platius along with a large force of Roman Legions to conquer all of Britain for Rome.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Three years later, in 43, possibly by re-collecting Caligula's troops, Claudius mounted an invasion force to re-instate Verica, an exiled king of the Atrebates.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;">[6]  Aulus Plautius, a distinguished senator, was given overall charge of four legions, totalling about 20,000 men, plus about the same number of auxiliaries. The legions were: <p style="margin-top:0.5em;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The II Augusta is known to have been commanded by the future emperor Vespasian. Three other men of appropriate rank to command legions are known from the sources to have been involved in the invasion. Cassius Dio mentions Gnaeus Hosidius Geta, who probably led the IX Hispana, and Vespasian's brother Titus Flavius Sabinus the Younger. He wrote that Sabinus was Vespasian's lieutenant, but as Sabinus was the older brother and preceded Vespasian into public life, he could hardly have been a military tribune. Eutropius mentions Gnaeus Sentius Saturninus, although as a former consul he may have been too senior, and perhaps accompanied Claudius later.
 * Legio II Augusta
 * Legio IX Hispana
 * Legio XIV Gemina
 * Legio XX Valeria Victrix

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The main invasion force under Aulus Plautius crossed in three divisions. The port of departure is usually taken to have been Boulogne, and the main landing at Rutupiae (Richborough, on the east coast of Kent). Neither of these locations is certain. Dio does not mention the port of departure, and although Suetonius says that the secondary force under Claudius sailed from Boulogne, it does not necessarily follow that the entire invasion force did. Richborough has a large natural harbour which would have been suitable, and archaeology shows Roman military occupation at about the right time. However, Dio says the Romans sailed east to west, and a journey from Boulogne to Richborough is south to north. Some historians suggest a sailing from Boulogne to the Solent, landing in the vicinity of Noviomagus (Chichester) or Southampton, in territory formerly ruled by Verica. An alternative explanation might be a sailing from the mouth of the Rhine to Richborough, which would be east to west.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">British resistance was led by Togodumnus and Caratacus, sons of the late king of the Catuvellauni, Cunobeline. A substantial British force met the Romans at a river crossing thought to be near Rochester on the River Medway. The battle raged for two days. Hosidius Geta was almost captured, but recovered and turned the battle so decisively that he was awarded the "Roman triumph."

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The British were pushed back to the Thames. The Romans pursued them across the river causing them to lose men in the marshes of Essex. Whether the Romans made use of an existing bridge for this purpose or built a temporary one is uncertain. At least one division of auxiliary Batavian troops swam across the river as a separate force.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Togodumnus died shortly after the battle on the Thames. Plautius halted and sent word for Claudius to join him for the final push. Cassius Dio presents this as Plautius needing the emperor's assistance to defeat the resurgent British, who were determined to avenge Togodumnus. However, Claudius was no military man. Claudius's arch says he received the surrender of eleven kings without any loss, and Suetonius' The Twelve Caesars says that Claudius received the surrender of the Britons without battle or bloodshed. It is likely that the Catuvellauni were already as good as beaten, allowing the emperor to appear as conqueror on the final march on Camulodunum. Cassius Dio relates that he brought war elephants and heavy armaments which would have overawed any remaining native resistance. Eleven tribes of South East Britain surrendered to Claudius and the Romans prepared to move further west and north. The Romans established their new capital at Camulodunum and Claudius returned to Rome to celebrate his victory. Caratacus escaped and would continue the resistance further west.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;">Vespasian took a force westwards subduing tribes and capturing oppida as he went, going at least as far as Exeter which would appear to have become an early base for the Leg. II Augusta [also in 2010 two separate temporary legionary fortresses dated at about the time of Vespasian were partly excavated by Exeter City Archaeological Unit at St Loyes on the Roman Road between Isca andTopsham] and probably reaching Bodmin.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-13" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;">[13]  The Legio IX Hispana was sent north towards Lincoln (Latin: Lindum Colonia) and within four years of the invasion it is likely that an area south of a line from the Humber to the River Severn Estuary was under Roman control. That this line is followed by the Roman road of the Fosse Way has led many historians to debate the route's role as a convenient frontier during the early occupation. It is more likely that the border between Roman and Iron Age Britain was less direct and more mutable during this period however.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;">Late in 47 the new governor of Britain, Publius Ostorius Scapula, began a campaign against the tribes of modern day Wales, and the Cheshire Gap. The Silures of southeast Wales caused considerable problems to Ostorius and fiercely defended the Welsh border country. Caratacus himself was defeated in theBattle of Caer Caradoc and fled to the Roman client tribe of the Brigantes who occupied the Pennines. Their queen,Cartimandua was unable or unwilling to protect him however given her own truce with the Romans and handed him over to the invaders. Ostorius died and was replaced by Aulus Didius Gallus who brought the Welsh borders under control but did not move further north or west, probably because Claudius was keen to avoid what he considered a difficult and drawn-out war for little material gain in the mountainous terrain of upland Britain. When Nero became emperor in AD 54, he seems to have decided to continue the invasion and appointed Quintus Veranius as governor, a man experienced in dealing with the troublesome hill tribes of Anatolia. Veranius and his successor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus mounted a successful campaign across Wales, famously destroying the druidical centre at Mona or Anglesey in AD 60 at what historians later called theMenai Massacre. Final occupation of Wales was postponed however when the rebellion of Boudica forced the Romans to return to the south east. The Silures were not finally conquered until circa AD 76 when Sextus Julius Frontinus' long campaign against them began to have success.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Following the successful  suppression<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> of  Boudica<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">'s uprising, a number of new Roman governors continued the conquest by edging north. Cartimandua was forced to ask for Roman aid following a rebellion by her husband  Venutius<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">. Quintus Petillius Cerialis<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> took his legions from Lincoln as far as  York<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> and defeated Venutius near Stanwick<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> around 70. This resulted in the already Romanised Brigantes and  Parisii<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> tribes being further assimilated into the empire proper. Frontinus<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> was sent into Roman Britain in 74 AD to succeed  Quintus Petillius Cerialis<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> as  governor<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> of that island. He subdued the  Silures<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> and other hostile tribes of  Wales<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">, establishing a new base at  Caerleon<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> for  Legio II Augusta<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> ( Isca Augusta<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">) and a network of smaller forts fifteen to twenty kilometres apart for his auxiliary units. During his tenure, he probably established the fort at  Pumsaint<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> in west  Wales<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">, largely to exploit the  gold<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;"> deposits at  Dolaucothi<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">. He retired in 78 AD, and later he was appointed water commissioner in  Rome<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">. The new governor was  Gnaeus Julius Agricola<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">, made famous through the highly laudatory biography of him written by his son-in-law,  Tacitus<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;"><span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Arriving in mid-summer of 78, Agricola found several previously defeated peoples had re-established their independence. The first to be dealt with were the <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">  Ordovices<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">  <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">of north Wales, who had destroyed a cavalry <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">  ala<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">  <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">of Roman auxiliaries stationed in their territory. Knowing the terrain from his prior military service in Britain, he was able to move quickly to defeat and virtually exterminate them. He then invaded <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">  Anglesey<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">, forcing the inhabitants to sue for peace. <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-14" style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;line-height:1;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;">[14] <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">  <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The following year he moved against the <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">  Brigantes<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">  <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">of northern England and the <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">  Selgovae<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">  <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">along the southern coast of Scotland, using overwhelming military power to re-establish Roman control. <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-15" style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;line-height:1;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;">[15] ===Scotland before Agricola<span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === <p style="margin-top:0.5em;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Details of the early years of the Roman occupation in North Britain are unclear but began no earlier than 71, as Tacitus says that in that year Petillius Cerialis (governor 71 - 74) waged a successful war against the Brigantes,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-16" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;">[16]  whose territory straddled Britain along the Solway-Tyne line. Tacitus praises both Cerialis and his successor Julius Frontinus (governor 75 – 78), but provides no additional information on events prior to 79 regarding the lands or peoples living north of the Brigantes. The Romans certainly would have followed up their initial victory over the Brigantes in some manner. In particular, archaeology has shown that the Romans had campaigned and built military camps in the north along Gask Ridge, controlling the glens that provided access to and from the Scottish Highlands, and also throughout the Scottish Lowlands in northeastern Scotland. In describing Agricola's campaigns, Tacitus does not explicitly state that this is actually a return to lands previously occupied by Rome, where Roman occupation either had been thrown off by the inhabitants, or had been abandoned by the Romans. ===Agricola in Caledonia<span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select:none;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;line-height:1em;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">[ edit<span class="mw-editsection-bracket" style="color:rgb(85,85,85);">] === <p style="margin-top:0.5em;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Tacitus says that after a combination of force and diplomacy quieted discontent among the Britons who had been conquered previously, Agricola built forts in their territories in 79. In 80 he marched to the Firth of Tay (some historians hold that he stopped along the Firth of Forth in that year), not returning south until 81, at which time he consolidated his gains in the new lands that he had conquered, and in the rebellious lands that he had re-conquered.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-17" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;">[17]  In 82 he sailed to eitherKintyre or the shores of Argyll, or to both. In 83 and 84 he moved north along Scotland's eastern and northern coasts using both land and naval forces, campaigning successfully against the inhabitants, and winning a significant victory over the northern British peoples led by Calgacus at the Battle of Mons Graupius.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-18" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;">[18]

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Prior to his recall in 84, Agricola built a network of military roads and forts to secure the Roman occupation. Existing forts were strengthened and new ones planted in northeastern Scotland along the Highland Line, consolidating control of the glens that provided access to and from the Scottish Highlands. The line of military communication and supply along southeastern Scotland and northeastern England (i.e., Dere Street) was well-fortified. In southern-most Caledonia, the lands of the Selgovae (approximating to modern Dumfriesshire and the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright) were heavily planted with forts, not only establishing effective control there, but also completing a military enclosure of south-central Scotland (most of theSouthern Uplands, Teviotdale, and western Tweeddale).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-19" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;">[19]  In contrast to Roman actions against the Selgovae, the territories of the Novantae, Damnonii, and Votadini were not planted with forts, and there is nothing to indicate that the Romans were at war with them. <h3 style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Agricola Recalled <p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Agricola was recalled to Rome by Domitian. His successors are not named in any surviving source, but it seems they were unable or unwilling to further subdue the far north. The fortress at Inchtuthil was dismantled before its completion and the other fortifications of the Gask Ridge in Perthshire, erected to consolidate the Roman presence in Scotland in the aftermath of Mons Graupius, were abandoned within the space of a few years. It is equally likely that the costs of a drawn-out war outweighed any economic or political benefit and it was more profitable to leave the Caledonians alone and only under de jure submission. <h3 style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Failure to conquer Scotland <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Roman occupation was withdrawn to a line subsequently established as one of the <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">  limes<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">  <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">of the empire (i.e. a defensible frontier) by the construction of <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">  Hadrian's Wall<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">. An attempt was made to push this line north to the <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">  River Clyde<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">- River Forth<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">area in 142 when the <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">  Antonine Wall<span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">  <span style="color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">was constructed. This was once again abandoned after two decades and only subsequently re-occupied on an occasional basis.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The Romans retreated to the earlier and stronger Hadrian's Wall in the River Tyne-Solway Firth frontier area, this having been constructed around 122. Roman troops, however, penetrated far into the north of modern Scotland several more times. Indeed, there is a greater density of Roman marching camps in Scotland than anywhere else in Europe as a result of at least four major attempts to subdue the area.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">The most notable was in 209 when the emperor Septimius Severus, claiming to be provoked by the belligerence of theMaeatae tribe, campaigned against the Caledonian Confederacy. He used the three legions of the British garrison (augmented by the recently formed 2nd Parthica legion), 9000 imperial guards with cavalry support, and numerous auxiliaries supplied from the sea by the British fleet, the Rhine fleet and two fleets transferred from the Danube for the purpose. According to Dio Cassius, he inflicted genocidal depredations on the natives and incurred the loss of 50,000 of his own men to the attrition of guerrilla tactics before having to withdraw to Hadrian's Wall. He repaired and reinforced the wall with a degree of thoroughness that led most subsequent Roman authors to attribute the construction of the wall to him. It was during the negotiations to purchase the truce necessary to secure the Roman retreat to the wall that the first recorded utterance, attributable with any reasonable degree of confidence, to a native of Scotland was made (as recorded by Dio Cassius). When Septimius Severus's wife, Julia Domna, criticised the sexual morals of the Caledonian women, the wife of a Caledonian chief, Argentocoxos, replied: "We consort openly with the best of men while you allow yourselves to be debauched in private by the worst".<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-20" style="line-height:1;unicode-bidi:-webkit-isolate;">[20]  The emperor Septimius Severus died at York while planning to renew hostilities, and these plans were abandoned by his son Caracalla.

<p style="margin-top:0.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;color:rgb(37,37,37);font-family:sans-serif;">Later excursions into Scotland by the Romans were generally limited to the scouting expeditions of exploratores in the buffer zone that developed between the walls, trading contacts, bribes to purchase truces from the natives, and eventually the spread of Christianity. The degree to which the Romans interacted with the island ofHibernia is still unresolved amongst archaeologists in Ireland. The successes and failures of the Romans in subduing the peoples of Britain are still represented in the political geography of the British Isles today.